20806208Anatomy and Physiology 2
Course Information
Description
Anatomy and Physiology 2 features lectures and laboratory exercises dealing with the human body as an integrated structural and functional unit including the cardiovascular system, lymphatic system and immunity, respiratory system, digestive system and metabolism, urinary system, fluid/electrolyte balance and acid/base balance, and reproductive system. It includes dissection of a cat as well as examination of a human cadaver. Note: this is the second semester course of a two-semester sequence and is not acceptable where a one-semester Anatomy and Physiology course is required.
Total Credits
4
Course Competencies
  1. Explain general functions of the cardiovascular system
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the major functions of the cardiovascular system.

  2. Explain composition of blood plasma
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the overall composition of plasma, including the major types of plasma proteins, their functions and where in the body they are produced.

  3. Explain identity, microscopic, anatomy, numbers, formation, and functional roles of the formed elements of blood
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Identify microscopically each of the following erythrocytes (RBCs), the five types of leukocytes (WBCs), and thrombocytes (platelets), with respect to the structure and numbers of formed elements in blood.
    Compare and contrast erythrocytes, the five types of leukocytes, and platelets with respect to morphology, motility, and life span, with respect to the structure and numbers of formed elements in blood.
    State the normal ranges for erythrocyte counts and hematocrit (both male and female), total leukocyte count, and platelet count, with respect to the structure and numbers of formed elements in blood.
    List the five types of leukocytes in order of their relative prevalence in normal blood and classify each type as granulocyte or agranulocyte, with respect to the structure and numbers of formed elements in blood.
    Explain how platelets differ structurally from the other formed elements of the blood, with respect to the structure and numbers of formed elements in blood.
    Describe the location of hematopoiesis and the significance of the pluripotent stem call (hemocytoblast), with respect to development of formed elements.
    Explain the basic process of erythropoiesis, the significance of the reticulocyte, and regulation through erythropoietin, with respect to development of formed elements.
    Discuss the role of the megakaryocyte in the formation of platelets, with respect to development of formed elements.
    State the function of red blood cells, with respect to the functional roles of formed elements.
    Discuss the structure and function of hemoglobin, as well as its breakdown products, with respect to the functional roles of formed elements.
    Identify multiple causes of anemia, with respect to the functional roles of formed elements.
    Describe functions for each of the five major types of leukocytes as well as the two major subtypes of lymphocytes (T and B), with respect to the functional roles of formed elements.
    State the function of platelets, including the role of specific platelet factors, with respect to the functional roles of formed elements.

  4. Explain hemostasis, including coagulation of blood
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Distinguish between the terms hemostasis and coagulation.
    Describe the vascular phase including the role of endothelial cells.
    Describe the role of platelets and the steps involved in the formation of the platelet plug.
    Describe the basic steps involved in the formation of the insoluble fibrin clot.
    Differentiate between the intrinsic and extrinsic clotting mechanisms.
    Explain how the positive feedback loops in the platelet and coagulation phases promote hemostasis.
    Explain the role of calcium ions and vitamin K in blood clotting.
    Discuss the process of fibrinolysis, including the roles of plasminogen, tissue plasminogen activator and plasmin.
    Explain the mechanisms of action and give examples of procoagulants, anticoagulants and fibrinolytic drugs.
    Summarize factors that can increase the risk of intravascular clotting.
    Distinguish between the terms thrombus and embolus.

  5. Explain ABO and Rh blood grouping
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Explain the role of surface antigens on RBCs in determining blood groups.
    List the type of antigen and the type of antibodies present in each ABO blood type.
    Describe how the presence or absence of Rh antigen results in blood being classified as positive or negative.
    Demonstrate blood typing using standard plates
    Distinguish between the development of anti-Rh antibodies and the development of anti-A and anti-B antibodies.
    Predict which blood types are compatible and what happens when the incorrect ABO or Rh blood type is transfused.
    Describe maternal/fetal Rh incompatibility.
    State which blood type is considered the universal donor and which blood type is considered the universal recipient, and explain why.

  6. Explain gross and microscopic anatomy of the heart
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the position of the heart in the thoracic cavity.
    On the external heart identify the location of the four chambers as well as the coronary sulcus, anterior interventricular sulcus and posterior interventricular sulcus.
    Identify and describe the function of the primary internal structures of the heart, including chambers, septa, valves, papillary muscles, chordae tendineae, and venous and arterial openings.
    Compare and contrast the structure and function of the atrioventricular and the semilunar valves.
    Describe the layers of the pericardium and the location of the pericardial cavity.
    Identify myocardium and describe its histological structure, including the significance of intercalated discs.
    Discuss the structure and significance of the endocardium. Identify the right and left coronary arteries and their branches, the cardiac veins, and the coronary sinus.

  7. Explain the physiology of cardiac muscle contraction
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    List the phases of the cardiac muscle action potential and explain the ion movements that occur in each phase.
    Contrast the way action potentials are generated in cardiac pacemaker cells, in cardiac contractile cells and in skeletal muscle cells.
    Explain the significance of the plateau phase in the action potential of a cardiac contractile cell.
    Compare and contrast cardiac muscle contraction and skeletal muscle contraction.
    Compare and contrast the role of nerves in the depolarization of cardiac pacemaker cells, ventricular contractile cells, and skeletal muscle cells.

  8. Explain blood flow through the heart
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Identify the major blood vessels entering and leaving the heart and classify them as either an artery or a vein and as containing either oxygen-rich or oxygen-poor blood.
    Describe blood flow through the heart naming all chambers and valves passed.
    Explain the major factors that aid in movement of blood through the heart and produce one-way flow.
    Explain how the heart is a double pump and why this is significant.

  9. Explain the conduction system of the heart and the electrocardiogram
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    List the parts of the conduction system and explain how the system functions.
    Define automaticity and explain why the SA node normally paces the heart.
    Explain how the cardiac conduction system produces efficient pumping of blood.
    Describe the role of the nervous system in the regulation of cardiac function.
    Relate the cardiac control center to the autonomic nervous system.
    Describe the effects of pressoreceptor and other sensory input to the cardiac control center.
    Identify the waveforms in a normal EKG.
    Relate the waveforms to atrial and ventricular depolarization and repolarization and to the activity of the conduction system.
    Demonstrate using EKG waveforms how heart rate can be estimated.

  10. Explain cardiac cycle
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Define cardiac cycle, systole, and diastole.
    Explain how atrial systole is related to ventricular filling.
    Relate the opening and closing of specific heart valves in each phase of the cardiac cycle to pressure changes in the heart chambers.
    Relate the heart sounds to the events of the cardiac cycle.
    Summarize the valve abnormalities that could cause heart murmurs.
    Define systolic and diastolic blood pressure and interpret a graph of aortic pressure versus time during the cardiac cycle.
    Compare and contrast pressure and volume changes of the left and right ventricles during one cardiac cycle.

  11. Explain regulation of cardiac output, stroke volume, and heart rate
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Define cardiac output, and state its units of measurement.
    Calculate cardiac output, given stroke volume and heart rate.
    Predict how changes in heart rate (HR) and/or stroke volume (SV) will affect cardiac output.
    Discuss the concept of cardiac reserve.
    Define end diastolic volume (EDV) and end systolic volume (ESV) and calculate stroke volume (SV) given values for EDV and ESV.
    Define venous return, preload and afterload, and explain the factors that affect them as well as how each of them affects EDV, ESV and SV.
    Explain the significance of the Frank-Starling Law of the heart.
    Discuss the influence of positive and negative inotropic agents on SV.
    Discuss the influence of positive and negative chronotropic agents on HR.
    Explain the relationship between changes in HR and changes in filling time and EDV.

  12. Explain anatomy and functional roles of the different types of blood vessels
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Compare and contrast the structure of arteries and veins and arterioles and venules.
    List the types of arteries and veins.
    Correlate the anatomical structure of each type of blood vessel with its function.
    Define vasoconstriction, vasodilation, and venoconstriction.
    Describe the role of arterioles in regulating tissue blood flow and systemic arterial blood pressure.
    Explain how the composition of capillary walls differs from that of other blood vessels.
    List types of capillaries and state where in the body each type is found.
    Correlate the anatomical structure of capillaries with their functions.
    Describe the location and function of the venous reserve.
    Define anastomosis and explain the significance of anastomoses, such as the Circle of Willis.
    Identify the major arteries and veins.

  13. Explain the pattern of blood circulation throughout the body, including systemic, pulmonary, coronary, hepatic portal, and fetal circulations
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the systemic and pulmonary circuits and discuss the functions of each.
    State which blood vessel type carries oxygen-rich blood and which type carries oxygen-poor blood in each circuit.
    Trace blood flow through the coronary circulation from the aorta to the right atrium.
    Discuss the significance of collateral coronary circulation.
    Describe the hepatic portal vein.
    Explain how the anatomical design of the hepatic portal circulation serves its function.
    Describe the role of the placenta and umbilical blood vessels in fetal circulation.
    Identify the ductus venosus, foramen ovale, and ductus arteriosus and explain their roles in fetal circulation.
    Trace the pathway of blood flow from the placenta through the fetal heart and body and back to the placenta.
    For each umbilical vessel and the major fetal blood vessels, state whether each vessel carries oxygen-rich, oxygen-poor or mixed blood, and explain why the different oxygen levels occur in these vessels.
    With respect to the umbilical vessels, ductus venosus, ductus arteriosus and foramen ovale, describe the changes associated with birth and the ultimate postnatal fate of these structures.
    Compare and contrast prenatal and postnatal circulatory pathways.

  14. Explain blood pressure and its functional interrelationships with cardiac output, peripheral resistance, and hemodynamics
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Define blood flow, blood pressure, pulse pressure and peripheral resistance.
    State and interpret the equation that relates blood flow to pressure and resistance.
    List the local, hormonal and neuronal factors that affect peripheral resistance and explain the importance of each.
    Interpret relevant graphs to explain the relationships between vessel diameter, cross-sectional area, blood pressure, and blood velocity.
    Using a graph of pressures within the systemic circuit, interpret the pressure changes that occur in the arteries, capillaries, and veins.
    State normal values for systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and calculate pulse pressure (PP)
    Explain the role of diffusion in capillary exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes.
    Explain the roles of filtration and reabsorption in capillary exchange of fluid.
    Describe how net filtration pressure across the capillary wall determines movement of fluid across the capillary wall.
    Relate net filtration pressure to potential edema and the need for a functional lymphatic system.
    Discuss how muscular compression and the respiratory pump aid venous return.
    Explain how autoregulation controls blood flow to individual tissues.
    Explain the role of the precapillary sphincter in autoregulation.
    List some chemicals that cause vasodilation and explain when they are active.
    List some chemicals that cause vasoconstriction and explain when they are active.
    During the baroreceptor reflex, explain how cardiac output and peripheral resistance are regulated to maintain adequate blood pressure on a moment-to-moment basis.
    During the chemoreceptor reflex, explain how the respiratory and cardiovascular systems are coordinated to provide flow and oxygen to body tissues.
    Explain the role of the sympathetic nervous system in regulation of blood pressure and volume.
    Explain the role of hormones in regulation of blood pressure, including the mechanism by which specific hormones affect preload, heart rate, inotropic state or vascular resistance.

  15. Explain the application of homeostatic mechanisms
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the cardiovascular system responds to maintain homeostasis in the body.
    Explain how the cardiovascular system relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis.

  16. Explain how predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states and disorders
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Predict factors or situations affecting the cardiovascular system that could disrupt homeostasis.
    Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the cardiovascular system could not maintain homeostasis.

  17. Explain the lymph and lymphatic vessels
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the major functions of the lymphatic system.
    Compare and contrast whole blood, plasma, interstitial fluid, and lymph.
    Compare and contrast lymphatic vessels and blood vessels in terms of structure and function.
    Describe the path of lymph circulation.
    Describe the mechanisms of lymph formation and circulation.

  18. Explain the lymphatic cells, tissues, and organs
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the basic structure and cellular composition of lymphatic tissue and correlate it to the overall functions of the lymphatic system.
    For the lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, tonsils and other aggregations of mucosae-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT):
    Identify and describe the gross anatomical features of each organ or tissue.
    Identify and describe the microscopic anatomy of each organ or tissue.
    Describe the location in the body of each organ or tissue.
    Describe the function of each organ or tissue.

  19. Explain introduction to innate (nonspecific) defenses and adaptive (specific) defenses
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Compare and contrast innate (nonspecific) defenses with adaptive (specific) defenses.
    Define immunity and the immune system.
    Describe the roles of various types of leukocytes in innate and adaptive body defenses.
    Analyze ways in which the innate and adaptive body defenses cooperate to enhance the overall resistance to disease.

  20. Explain innate (nonspecific) defenses
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Name the surface membrane barriers and describe their physical, chemical, and microbiological mechanisms of defense.
    Define diapedesis, chemotaxis, opsonization, and membrane attack complex and explain their importance for innate defenses.
    Describe the steps involved in phagocytosis and provide examples of important phagocytic cells in the body.
    Describe natural killer cells and discuss their function.
    Explain how complement and interferon function as antimicrobial chemicals.
    Describe the mechanisms of inflammation initiation.
    Summarize the cells and chemicals involved in the inflammatory process.
    List and explain the cause of the four cardinal signs of inflammation.
    Explain why inflammation can be beneficial.
    Describe the mechanism of fever and the role of pyrogens.
    Explain why fever can be beneficial.

  21. Explain the overview of adaptive (specific) defenses
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Distinguish between humoral and cell-mediated immunity.
    Describe the immunological memory (anamnestic) response.

  22. Explain antigens and antigen processing
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Define antigen and antigen receptor.
    Distinguish among complete antigens, haptens, antigenic determinants and self-antigens.
    Define MHC.
    Describe where class I and class II MHC and MHC proteins are found.
    Explain the function of class I and class II MHC in adaptive immunity.
    Explain the role of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and provide examples of cells that function as APCs.

  23. Explain lymphocytes and their role in adaptive immunity
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Distinguish among the various types of lymphocytes, including helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells, regulatory (or suppressor) T cells, B cells, plasma cells, and memory cells.
    Define immunocompetence and self-tolerance and distinguish between naive and activated immune cells.
    Compare and contrast the sites where the cells originate and achieve their immunocompetence, and the primary location of the immunocompetent cells in the body.
    Compare and contrast the mechanisms of antigen challenge and the clonal selection processes, including effector cells, helper cells, memory cells, and important cytokines.
    Compare and contrast the defense mechanisms and functions.
    Describe the contribution of clonal deletion to immunity.

  24. Explain antibodies and their role in adaptive immunity
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe antibody structure.
    Describe mechanisms of antibody action and correlate mechanisms with effector functions.
    List the five classes of antibodies and discuss structural and functional features that distinguish each class.
    Interpret a graph of the primary and secondary immune response, in terms of the relative concentrations of different classes of antibodies produced over time.

  25. Explain applied immunology
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Distinguish between active and passive immunity.
    Describe natural and artificial examples of both active and passive immunity.
    Provide examples of how applied immunology can be used to diagnose, treat and prevent diseases.
    Summarize the concept of herd immunity.

  26. Explain the application of homeostatic mechanisms
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the lymphatic and immune systems respond to maintain homeostasis in the body.
    Explain how the lymphatic and immune systems relate to other body systems to maintain homeostasis.

  27. Explain predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states and disorders
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Predict factors or situations affecting the lymphatic and immune systems that could disrupt homeostasis.
    Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the lymphatic and immune systems could not maintain homeostasis.

  28. Explain the general functions of the respiratory system
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the major functions of the respiratory system.
    Describe the four respiratory processes - ventilation, external respiration (gas exchange at lung), internal respiration (gas exchange at body tissues), and cellular respiration.

  29. Explain gross and microscopic anatomy of the respiratory tract and related organs
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe and distinguish between the upper and lower respiratory tracts.
    Describe and distinguish between the conducting and respiratory zones of the respiratory tract.
    List, in order, the respiratory structures that air passes through during inspiration.
    For each of the following - nasal cavities, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, pleural membranes, pulmonary blood vessels and nerves, thoracic and pleural cavities, and diaphragm:
    Identify each structure.
    Describe the gross anatomical features of each structure.
    State the function of each structure.
    Relate the anatomical structures of the respiratory system to adjacent organs and tissues.
    For each of the following - respiratory (nasal) mucosa, the layers of the tracheal wall, the bronchi and bronchioles, the three cell types found in alveoli, and the respiratory membrane:
    Identify each structure.
    Describe the microscopic anatomy of each structure
    State the function of each structure.
    Describe the changes in epithelial and connective tissue seen in various portions of the air passageways and relate these changes to function.

  30. Explain the mechanisms of pulmonary ventilation
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Define pulmonary ventilation, inspiration, and expiration.
    Identify the muscles used during quiet inspiration, during forced inspiration, and during forced expiration, as well as the nerves responsible for stimulating those muscles.
    Define and state relative values for atmospheric pressure, intrapulmonary pressure, intrapleural pressure, and transpulmonary pressure.
    State Boyle’s Law and relate this law to the specific sequence of events (muscle contractions/relaxations and pressure/volume changes) causing inspiration and expiration.
    Explain how each of the following affect pulmonary ventilation:  bronchiolar smooth muscle contractions, lung and thoracic wall compliance and recoil, and pulmonary surfactant and alveolar surface tension.
    Describe the forces that tend to collapse the lungs and those that normally oppose or prevent collapse.

  31. Explain pulmonary air volumes and capacities
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Define, identify, and determine values for the respiratory volumes (IRV, TV, ERV, and RV) and the respiratory capacities (IC, FRC, VC, and TLC).
    Define and calculate values for minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation.
    Define anatomical dead space and explain the effect of anatomical dead space on alveolar ventilation and on the composition of alveolar and expired air.

  32. Explain mechanisms of gas exchange in the lungs and tissues
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    State Dalton’s Law and Henry’s Law, and relate both laws to the events of external and internal respiration and to the amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolved in plasma.
    Describe oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration gradients and net gas movements.
    Analyze how oxygen and carbon dioxide movements are affected by changes in partial pressure gradients (e.g., at high altitude), surface area, diffusion distance, and solubility and molecular weight of the gases.
    Describe the mechanisms of ventilation-perfusion coupling and predict the effect that reduced alveolar ventilation has on pulmonary blood flow and the effect that reduced pulmonary blood flow has on bronchiole diameter and alveolar ventilation.
    Describe oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration gradients and net gas movements.
    Explain the factors that maintain oxygen and carbon dioxide gradients between blood and tissue cells.

  33. Explain mechanisms of gas transport in the blood
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the ways in which oxygen is transported in blood and discuss the relative importance of each to total oxygen transport.
    State the reversible chemical equation for oxygen binding to hemoglobin and predict how raising or lowering the partial pressure of oxygen will shift the equilibrium.
    Interpret the curve at low and high partial pressures of oxygen.
    List factors that shift the curve down and to the right, and explain how this results in increased oxygen delivery to the tissues.
    List factors that shift the curve up and to the left, and explain how this facilitates oxygen binding to hemoglobin in the lungs.
    Describe the ways in which carbon dioxide is transported in blood and discuss the relative importance of each to total carbon dioxide transport.
    State the reversible chemical equation for the reaction of carbon dioxide and water to carbonic acid and then to hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ion.
    Explain the relationship between pH and hydrogen ion concentration
    Predict how changing the partial pressure of carbon dioxide will affect the pH and the concentration bicarbonate ions in the plasma.
    Predict how changing the pH or the concentration of bicarbonate ions will affect the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the plasma.
    State the reversible chemical equation for carbon dioxide binding to deoxyhemoglobin and predict how changing carbon dioxide concentrations will affect deoxyhemoglobin levels in the tissues and the lungs.
    Explain how each of the following relates to carbon dioxide transport: carbonic anhydrase, hydrogen ions binding to hemoglobin and plasma proteins, the chloride ion shift, and the oxygen-hemoglobin saturation level.

  34. Explain control of pulmonary ventilation
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the locations and functions of the brainstem respiratory centers.
    List and describe the major chemical and neural stimuli to the respiratory centers.
    Compare and contrast the central and peripheral chemoreceptors.
    Define hyperventilation, hypoventilation, panting, eupnea, hyperpnea and apnea.
    Explain why it is possible to hold one’s breath longer after hyperventilating than after eupnea.

  35. Explain application of homeostatic mechanisms
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the respiratory system responds to maintain homeostasis in the body.
    Explain how the respiratory system relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis.

  36. Explain predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states and disorders
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Predict factors or situations affecting the respiratory system that could disrupt homeostasis.
    Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the respiratory system could not maintain homeostasis.

  37. Explain the general functions of the digestive system
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the major functions of the digestive system.

  38. Explain gross and microscopic anatomy of the alimentary canal
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Identify, and describe the histological structure and the function of, each of the four layers of the wall - the mucosa, the submucosa, the muscularis externa, and the serosa (visceral peritoneum),
    Describe regional specializations in the histological structure of the alimentary canal and relate these specializations to the functions of the particular organs in which they are located.
    a.  Identify the boundaries of the oral cavity
    Identify the hard and soft palates and discuss their functions.
    Describe the structures of the tongue, including taste buds and papillae, and discuss their functions.
    Identify the different types of teeth and discuss their functions.
    State the dental formulas for both deciduous and permanent teeth.
    Identify the anatomical structures of a tooth.
    Identify the naso-, oro- and laryngopharynx and classify these regions with respect to passage of food and/or air through them.
    Describe the structure and discuss the function of the upper esophageal and lower esophageal (cardiac) sphincters.
    Describe the locations of skeletal and smooth muscle within the wall of the esophagus.
    Describe the structure and discuss the function of the cardiac and pyloric sphincters.
    Identify the structure and discuss the function of the cardiac region, the fundus, the body and the pyloric region of the stomach.
    Discuss the significance of rugae.
    Discuss the function of the oblique muscle layer of the stomach.
    Identify the structure of a gastric gland including the location of the chief (zymogenic) cells, parietal (oxynic) cells, enteroendocrine cells, and mucous cells, and discuss the functions of these different cell types.
    Identify the location and discuss the relative length and the functions of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
    Identify and discuss the histology and functions of the plicae circulares, villi, and microvilli.
    Discuss the function of small intestinal glands.
    Describe the structure and discuss the function of the ileocecal valve and the internal and external anal sphincters.
    Identify the location and discuss the functions of the cecum and appendix, the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon, the rectum, and the anus.
    Identify and discuss the functions of teniae coli, haustra, and epiploic appendages.

  39. Explain gross and microscopic anatomy of the accessory glands and organs
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the location of the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands and their respective ducts.
    Contrast the histology and the products of the serous cells and the mucous cells.
    Identify the individual lobes of the liver
    Identify the hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, and hepatic vein and discuss the function of each of those blood vessels.
    Identify the hepatic duct, cystic duct, gallbladder, common bile duct, sphincter of the hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater and sphincter of Oddi) and discuss the roles of those structures in the flow of bile.
    Identify the head, body and tail of the pancreas
    Identify the pancreatic acini and discuss their functions.
    Identify the pancreatic islets and discuss their functions.
    Identify the pancreatic duct and the hepatopancreatic sphincter and discuss their roles in the flow of pancreatic enzymes.

  40. Explain peritoneum and mesenteries
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the histology of the visceral and parietal peritoneum.
    Differentiate between intraperitoneal and retroperitoneal location of digestive structures.
    Identify the mesentery proper and the mesocolon and explain their function.

  41. Explain motility in the alimentary canal
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    List the structures involved in the process of deglutition and explain how they function, including the changes in position of the glottis and larynx that prevent aspiration.
    Define the terms peristalsis, segmentation and mass movement, and discuss the role that these activities play in the function of various regions of the alimentary canal.
    Explain how volume and chemical composition of  chyme affects motility in the stomach and in the duodenum.
    Describe the defecation reflex and the function of the internal and external anal sphincters.
    Explain the effect of rectal distension in the defecation reflex.
    Discuss the conscious control of the defecation reflex.
    Discuss the specific role of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system in the reflex.
    Explain the Valsalva maneuver and the effects it has on the process of defecation and on the cardiovascular system.

  42. Explain mechanical and chemical processes of digestion
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Define mechanical digestion.
    List the organs and structures of the digestive system that function in mechanical digestion and explain the details of the process for each.
    Define enzymatic hydrolysis.
    List the organs and structures of the digestive system that function in enzymatic hydrolysis.
    List the enzymes used in enzymatic hydrolysis.
    Discuss the activation of specific enzymes, where applicable.
    List the substrates and products of enzymatic hydrolysis for each enzyme.
    Discuss the mechanisms used to regulate secretion and/or activation of each enzyme.
    Discuss the function, production, and regulation of secretion of hydrochloric acid (HCl).
    Define emulsification and describe the process.
    List the organs and structures of the digestive system that function in the process of emulsification.

  43. Explain the processes of absorption
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    List the organs and specific structures involved in the absorption of each of these types of nutrient.
    Explain the processes involved in absorption of each type of nutrient.
    Discuss the absorption of fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins and the absorption of vitamin B12.
    Discuss the enterohepatic circulation of bile salts.

  44. Explain hormonal and neural regulation of digestive processes
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    List the components of both a short reflex and a long reflex in the digestive system.
    Discuss regulation of reflexes by the enteric nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.
    Explain the effect of the cephalic phase of regulation on the mucous glands.
    Explain the effect of the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase on the functions of the stomach and give examples for each phase.
    Explain the effect of the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase on the functions of the small intestine and give examples for each phase.
    a. State the organ or structure that produces each hormone or agent.
    b. State the target organ for each hormone or agent.
    c. Describe the action of each hormone or agent.

  45. Explain application of homeostatic mechanisms
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the digestive system responds to maintain homeostasis in the body.
    Explain how the digestive system relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis.

  46. Explain predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states and disorders
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Predict factors or situations affecting the digestive system that could disrupt homeostasis.
    Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the digestive system could not maintain homeostasis.

  47. Explain nutrition
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Define nutrient, essential nutrient and non-essential nutrient.
    For carbohydrates, fats, and proteins - list their dietary sources, state their energy yields per gram, and discuss their common uses in the body.
    Discuss the qualifications needed for a molecule to be considered a vitamin, and classify vitamins as either fat-soluble or water-soluble.

  48. Explain introduction to metabolism
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Define metabolism, anabolism and catabolism
    Provide examples of anabolic and catabolic reactions.
    Compare and contrast the roles of enzymes and coenzymes in metabolism.
    Explain the roles of coenzyme A, NAD, and FAD in metabolism.
    Describe the processes of oxidation, reduction, decarboxylation, and phosphorylation.

  49. Explain cellular respiration and the catabolism and anabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    State the overall reaction for glucose catabolism.
    Describe the processes of glycolysis, formation of acetyl CoA, the mitochondrial matrix and membrane reactions, including the substrates and products of each, their locations within the cell and the energy yield of each process.
    Describe the anaerobic process for generating ATP, including conditions under which it occurs and its products and their functions.
    Describe the processes of glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis, including the substrates and products of each.
    Describe the role of hormones (such as cortisol, growth hormone, thyroid hormone, insulin, glucagon and norepinephrine) in regulation of carbohydrate catabolism and anabolism.
    Predict the metabolic conditions that would favor each of the following processes: glycogenesis, glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
    Describe the basic process of protein synthesis.
    Describe the process of deamination and its importance in gluconeogenesis and the interconversion of nutrients.
    Describe the process of transamination in the interconversion of nutrients.
    Explain how protein catabolism leads to ATP production.
    Describe the effect of protein metabolism on ammonia and urea production.
    Describe the role of hormones (such as cortisol, human growth hormone and insulin) in regulation of protein catabolism and anabolism.
    Describe the basic process of lipogenesis and lipolysis.
    Describe the role of hormones (such as cortisol, human growth hormone and thyroid hormone) in regulation of lipogenesis andlypolysis,
    Summarize the overall process of the beta oxidation of fatty acids and explain how it relates to ketogenesis & ketoacidosis.
    Describe the nutrient interconversion pathways that involve fats.
    Compare and contrast the structure and function of different types of lipoproteins in the body.

  50. Explain metabolic roles of body organs
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the role of the liver in metabolism.
    Explain the role of adipose tissue in metabolism.
    Describe the role of skeletal muscle in metabolism.

  51. Explain energy balance and thermoregulation
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Compare and contrast the processes that occur in the absorptive and post-absorptive states.
    Explain the role of cortisol, human growth hormone, thyroid hormone, insulin and glucagon in the absorptive and post-absorptive states.
    Explain the significance of glucose-sparing for neural tissue in the post-absorptive state.
    Define calorie and kilocalorie.
    Discuss the importance of energy (caloric) balance in maintaining healthy body weight.
    Define metabolic rate and basal metabolic rate.
    Describe factors that affect metabolic rate.
    Explain the importance of thermoregulation in the body.

  52. Explain the application of homeostatic mechanisms
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Provide specific examples to demonstrate how metabolic processes respond to maintain homeostasis in the body.
    Explain the role of metabolism as it relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis.

  53. Explain predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states and disorders
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Predict factors or situations affecting metabolism that could disrupt homeostasis.
    Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body metabolic processes could not maintain homeostasis.

  54. Explain the general functions of the urinary system
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the major functions of the urinary system.

  55. Explain gross and microscopic anatomy of the urinary tract, including detailed histology of the nephron
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the external structure of the kidney, including its location and covering.
    Identify, and describe the structure and location of, the ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
    Compare and contrast the male and female urethras.
    Identify the major internal divisions and structures of the renal tissue.
    Identify the major blood vessels associated with the kidney.
    Trace the path of blood through the kidney.
    Identify the major structures and subdivisions of the renal corpuscles, renal tubules and renal capillaries.
    Compare and contrast cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons.
    Compare and contrast the structure and function of glomerular and peritubular capillaries.
    Identify the location, structures and cells of the juxtaglomerular apparatus.
    Describe the histological structure of the proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop (loop of Henle), distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct.
    Distinguish histologically between renal cortex and medulla.
    Trace the path of filtrate/urine from the renal corpuscle to the urethral opening.

  56. Explain the functional process of urine formation, including filtration reabsorption, and secretion
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    List the three major processes in urine formation and where each occurs in the nephron and collecting system.
    Describe the structure of the filtration membrane.
    Explain the anatomical features that create high glomerular capillary blood pressure and explain why this blood pressure is significant for urine formation.
    Describe the hydrostatic and colloid osmotic forces that favor and oppose filtration.
    Describe glomerular filtration rate (GFR), state the average value of GFR, and explain how clearance rate can be used to measure GFR.
    Predict specific factors that will increase or decrease GFR.
    List specific transport mechanisms occurring in different parts of the nephron, including active transport, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, passive electrochemical gradients, receptor-mediated endocytosis, and transcytosis.
    List the different membrane proteins of the nephron, including aquaporins, channels, transporters, and ATPase pumps.
    Compare and contrast passive and active tubular reabsorption.
    Describe how and where water, organic compounds, and ions are reabsorbed in the nephron.
    Explain why the differential permeability or impermeability of specific sections of the nephron tubules is necessary for urine formation.
    Explain the role of the nephron loop, the vasa recta, and the countercurrent multiplication mechanism in the concentration of urine.
    State the percent of filtrate that is normally reabsorbed and explain why the process of reabsorption is so important.
    List the location(s) in the nephron where tubular secretion occurs.
    Describe the physiological processes involved in eliminating drugs, wastes and excess ions.
    Compare and contrast reabsorption and tubular secretion, with respect to direction of solute movement, strength of concentration gradients, and energy required.
    Explain how the three processes in urine formation determine the rate of excretion of any solute.
    Compare and contrast blood plasma, glomerular filtrate, and urine and then relate their differences to function of the nephron.
    Determine the physical and chemical properties of a urine sample and relate these properties to normal urine composition.

  57. Explain the factors regulating and altering urine volume and composition, including the renin-angiotensin system and the roles of aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, and the natriuretic peptides
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the myogenic and tubuloglomerular feedback mechanisms and explain how they affect urine volume and composition.
    Describe the function of the juxtaglomerular apparatus.
    Describe how each of the following functions in the extrinsic control of GFR: renin-angiotensin mechanism, natriuretic peptides, and sympathetic adrenergic activity.
    Describe how each of the following works to regulate reabsorption and secretion, so as to affect urine volume and composition: renin-angiotensin system, aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, and natriuretic peptides.
    Predict specific factors involved in creating dilute versus concentrated urine.
    Explain the mechanism of action of diuretics.

  58. Explain additional endocrine activities of the kidney
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the role of kidney in vitamin D activation.
    Describe the role of kidney in regulating erythropoiesis.

  59. Explain innervation and control of the urinary bladder
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the function of the ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
    Describe the micturition reflex.
    Describe voluntary and involuntary neural control of micturition.
    Relate the anatomy and histology of the bladder to its function.

  60. Explain the application of homeostatic mechanisms
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the urinary system responds to maintain homeostasis in the body.
    Explain how the urinary system relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis.

  61. Explain predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states and disorders
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Predict factors or situations affecting the urinary system that could disrupt homeostasis.
    Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the urinary system could not maintain homeostasis.

  62. Explain the regulation of water intake and output
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    List and describe the routes of water entry into the body and state representative volumes for each.
    List and describe the routes of water loss from the body and state representative volumes for each.
    Describe the mechanisms used to regulate water intake.
    Describe the mechanisms used to regulate water output.

  63. Explain and describe the major fluid compartments
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the fluid compartments (including the subdivisions of the extracellular fluid) and state the relative volumes of each

  64. Explain the chemical composition of the major compartment fluids
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Define electrolyte.
    Compare and contrast the relative concentrations of major electrolytes in intracellular and extracellular fluids.
    Describe the function(s) of each abundant electrolyte found in body fluids, including sodium, chloride, potassium, phosphate and calcium.
    Describe hormonal regulation of electrolyte levels in the plasma, including sodium, chloride, potassium, phosphate and calcium.

  65. Explain the movements between the major fluid compartments
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Explain the role of electrolytes and non-electrolytes in the determination of osmotic pressure.
    Describe the forces that affect capillary filtration, including the determinants of each force.
    Compare and contrast the roles that osmosis and capillary filtration play in the movement of fluids between compartments.
    Describe the role of “capillary permeability” in fluid movement across the capillary wall.
    Explain how dehydration and overhydration (water intoxication) develop and how fluids shift between the three major body compartments during each.

  66. Explain the buffer systems and their roles in acid/base balance
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Define acid, base, pH and buffer.
    State the normal pH range for arterial blood.
    State the chemical equation for the bicarbonate buffer system.
    Explain the role of each buffer system in regulation of blood, interstitial fluid, and intracellular pH, including how each system responds to increases or decreases in pH.
    Explain the role of hemoglobin in pH buffering.

  67. Explain the role of the respiratory and urinary systems in acid/base balance
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    State the normal ranges for PCO2 and HCO3- in arterial blood and summarize their relationship to blood pH.
    Describe the role of the respiratory system in regulation of blood pH and predict how hypo- and hyperventilation will affect blood pH.
    Explain the mechanisms by which the kidneys secrete hydrogen ions, and how this process affects blood pH.
    Explain the mechanisms by which the kidneys retain bicarbonate ions, and how this process affects blood pH.
    Discuss the concept of compensation to correct respiratory and metabolic acidosis and alkalosis.
    Given appropriate arterial blood gas values, determine whether a patient has normal blood pH or is in respiratory acidosis or alkalosis or is in metabolic acidosis or alkalosis, and whether the acidosis/alkalosis is partially or fully compensated or uncompensated.

  68. Explain the application of homeostatic mechanisms
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practice Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guides
    Other strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the cardiovascular, endocrine, and urinary systems respond to maintain homeostasis of fluid volume in the body.
    Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the cardiovascular, endocrine, respiratory, and urinary systems respond to maintain homeostasis of electrolyte concentrations and pH of body fluids.
    Explain how fluid volumes and distribution contribute to the maintenance of homeostasis in other body systems.
    Explain how electrolyte concentrations and body fluid pH contribute to the maintenance of homeostasis in other body systems.

  69. Explain the predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states and disorders
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guide
    Other Strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Predict factors or situations that would lead to a disruption of homeostasis by affecting the volume or composition of body fluids.
    Predict factors or situations that would lead to a disruption of homeostasis by causing respiratory acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, or metabolic alkalosis.
    Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the volume and composition of body fluids were not maintained within normal homeostatic ranges.
    Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if body fluid pH were not maintained within the normal homeostatic range.

  70. Explain the general functions of the male and female reproductive systems
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guide
    Other Strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the major functions of the male and female reproductive systems.

  71. Explain the gross and microscopic anatomy of the male and female reproductive systems
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guide
    Other Strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    With respect to the gross anatomy, identify and describe the anatomy of the male and female reproductive system, including the gonads, ducts, accessory glands, associated support structures, and external genitalia.
    Identify and describe the reproductive and supporting cells of the seminiferous tubules of the testis.
    Identify and describe the different stages of follicular development in the ovary, including the preovulatory follicle and the corpus luteum.
    Identify and describe the histology of the uterine wall.

  72. Explain gametogenesis
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guide
    Other Strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Contrast the overall processes of mitosis and meiosis.
    Relate the general stages of meiosis to the specific processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
    Contrast the process and the final products of spermatogenesis and oogenesis.

  73. Explain the specific roles of the female reproductive organs
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guide
    Other Strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the pathway of the ovum from the ovary to the uterus.
    Describe the ovarian cycle and relate the events of the ovarian cycle to oogenesis.
    Describe the events of the uterine cycle.
    Analyze graphs depicting the typical female monthly sexual cycle and correlate ovarian activity, hormonal changes, and uterine events.
    Explain why changes in cervical mucus can predict a woman’s monthly fertility.
    Provide examples of how birth control methods relate to normal reproductive function.

  74. Explain the specific roles of the male reproductive organs
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guide
    Other Strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Discuss the relationship between the location of the testes and sperm production.
    Explain the role of the sustentacular cells and interstitial cells in sperm production.
    Describe the pathway of sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the external urethral orifice of the penis.
    Identify and describe the organs involved in semen production.
    Discuss the composition of semen and its role is sperm function.

  75. Explain the regulation of reproductive system functions
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guide
    Other Strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    State the functions of gonadotropin releasing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, inhibin, testosterone, estrogen and progesterone.
    Compare and contrast endocrine regulation of spermatogenesis and oogenesis,
    Compare and contrast the events and endocrine regulation of female and male puberty.
    Define secondary sex characteristics and describe their role in reproductive system function.
    Compare and contrast female and male sexual responses.
    Define menopause, describe the physiological changes associated with menopause, and explain the fertility changes that precede menopause.

  76. Explain pregnancy, parturition and labor
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guide
    Other Strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the hormonal changes during pregnancy and the effect of these hormones.
    Explain the hormonal events that initiate and regulate labor.
    Describe the three stages of labor.

  77. Explain mammary glands and lactation
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guide
    Other Strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe the structure and the function of the mammary glands.
    Describe the hormonal regulation of lactation.

  78. Explain genetic variability
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guide
    Other Strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Describe events that lead to genetic variability of gametes.

  79. Explain gene inheritance and expression
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guide
    Other Strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Define the terms chromosome, gene, allele, homologous, homozygous, heterozygous, genotype and phenotype.
    Analyze genetics problems involving dominant and recessive alleles, incomplete dominance, codominance, and multiple alleles.
    Explain how polygenic inheritance differs from inheritance that is controlled by only one gene.
    Discuss the role of sex chromosomes in sex determination and sex-linked inheritance.

  80. Explain the predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states and disorders
    Assessment Strategies
    Lab Practical Exam
    Written Objective Test
    Completing Study Guide
    Other Strategies as selected by the instructor
    Criteria
    Predict factors or situations affecting gene inheritance that could disrupt homeostasis.
    Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if gene structure or chromosome number were altered.